1. I have borrowed these terms from philosopher Richard Garner, to whom I am also indebted for a number of suggestions on the content and phrasing of several sections of this paper.
2. The disjunction in this statement may be unnecessary if we accept John R. Ross’s arguments that declarative sentences have phonetically unrealized embedding sentences representable as something like I DECLARE TO YOU THAT…. On Ross’s view every sentence contains at least one locutionary verb, so that the difference we are after is a difference between references to the ‘next higher’ locutionary verb and reference to the ‘highest’ locutionary verbs. See John R. Ross, ‘On Declarative Sentences’, to appear in Readings in English Transformational Grammar, Ginn and Blaisdell, 1969.
3. See Charles J. Fillmore, ‘Deictic Categories in the Semantics of “COME”, Foundations of Language 2 (1966) 219–27.
4. There is an additional use of deictic words, and that is this: in a third person narrative, one can express one’s ‘identification’ with one of the characters in the narrative by letting that character be the focus of words that are primarily appropriate to hic-nunc-ego. Thus we may find in an exclusively third-person narrative a passage like (i) (i) here was where Francis had always hoped to be, and today was to mark for him the beginning of a new life in which the words HERE and TODAY refer to the place and time focused on in the narrative, not to the place and time associated with the author’s act of communication. In what might be referred to as the ‘displaced ego’ use of deictic words, the author has shown us that he has for the moment assumed Francis’s point of view.
5. I propose that a rather subtle test of psycho-sexual identity can be devised which makes use of a story in which two characters, one male and one female, do a lot of cross-visiting, but in their other activities do nothing that makes one of them clearly more lovable than the other. The subject’s task is to listen to the story and then retell it in his own words. The writer of the original story must not use the words COME and Go; but if the subject, in retelling the story, states, say, that BILL CAME TO MARY’S HOUSE (using CAME rather than WENT), this fact will reveal that he is experiencing the story from Mary’s point of view.