Capability of low-temperature SQUID for transient electromagnetics under anthropogenic noise conditions

Abstract

Transient electromagnetics (TEM) is a well-established method for mineral, groundwater, and geothermal exploration. Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)-based magnetic-field receivers used for TEM have quantitative advantages and higher sensitivity compared with commonly used induction coils. Special applications are deep soundings with target depths [Formula: see text] and settings with conductive overburden. However, SQUIDs have rarely been applied for TEM measurements in environments with significant anthropogenic noise. We compared a low-temperature SQUID with a commercially available induction coil in an area affected by anthropogenic noise. We acquired four fixed-loop data sets with totally 61 receiver stations close to Bad Frankenhausen, Germany. The high sensitivity of the SQUID enables low noise levels, which lead to longer high-quality transient data compared with the induction coil. The effect of anthropogenic and natural noise sources is more critical for the coil than for the SQUID data. In the vicinity of the transmitter loop, systematic distortion of the coil signals occurs at early times, most probably caused by sferic interferences. We have developed 1D inversion results of both receivers that matched well in general. However, the SQUID-based models were more consistent and showed greater depths of investigation. This led to a superior resolution of deeper layers and even enabled a potential detection of thin conducting targets at up to a 500 m depth. Moreover, we find that the SQUID data inversion revealed multidimensional effects within the conductive overburden. In this regard, we applied forward modeling to analyze systematic differences between inversion results of SQUID and coil data. We determine that low-temperature SQUIDs have the potential to significantly improve the reliability of subsurface models in suburban environments. Nevertheless, we recommend combined application of both types of receivers.