How human intervention and climate change shaped the fate of the Northern Bald Ibis from ancient Egypt to the presence: an interdisciplinary approach to extinction and recovery of an iconic bird species

Abstract

AbstractOnce widespread around the Mediterranean, the Northern Bald Ibis (Geronticus eremita) became one of the rarest birds in the world. We trace the history of this species through different epochs to the present. A particular focus is on its life and disappearance in ancient Egypt, where it attained the greatest mythological significance as a hieroglyphic sign for ‘blessed ancestor spirits’, and on modern endeavours to rewild and restore the species. The close association of the Northern Bald Ibis with human culture in ancient Egypt, as in other regions, is caused by primarily two reasons, the characteristic appearance and behaviour, as well as the need for open foraging areas. In consequence, a mutualistic relationship between humans and birds was formed in some cultures. The benefit for the Northern Bald Ibis was mainly the availability of feeding habitats, which were cleared by humans for farming or grazing and might have contributed to the spread of the species. The benefit to people was primarily cultural and mythological, whereby the bird was worshiped in ancient Egypt and in Muslim cultures, while Christian cultures in Europe rather regarded it as bad omen or nuisance, like any black bird species. Another benefit was profane in nature, the species was also hunted for food, mainly in Europe. But alike many other species, proximity to humans also carried a high risk for the Northern Bald Ibis. We discuss various kinds of human impacts that were driving causes for the extinction of the species in almost all regions. However, the historical disappearance of populations also correlates markedly with changes in climate, especially in ancient Egypt and the Middle Ages. This fact has important implications for current conservation efforts, especially since international action plans for the Northern Bald Ibis have taken little account of climate change effects so far. The Northern Bald Ibis is an outstanding example of how an interdisciplinary cultural-historical and natural-scientific approach significantly promotes the interpretation of historical evidence as well as the implementation of current rewilding and restoration efforts.