Calcium Intake and Iron Status in Human Studies: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials and Crossover Studies

Abstract

ABSTRACT Background The interaction between dietary (and supplementary) divalent ions has been a long-standing issue in human nutrition research. Developing an optimal calcium and iron supplementation recommendation requires detailed knowledge of the potential trade-offs between: 1) the clinical effects of concurrent intake on iron absorption and hematological indices; and 2) the potentially negative effects of separated ingestion on adherence to iron and/or calcium supplements. Human clinical studies have examined the effects of calcium intake on iron status, but there are no meta-analyses or recent reviews summarizing the findings. Objectives To synthesize peer-reviewed, human, randomized, and cross-over studies on effects of calcium consumption on iron indices without age, gender, or any other restrictions. Methods Weighted mean differences for total, heme, and nonheme iron absorption (%) and serum ferritin (μg/L) were obtained from pooled analysis of the highest daily calcium intake compared to the lowest daily calcium intake. Results The negative effect of calcium intake was statistically significant in short-term iron absorption studies, but the effect magnitude was low [weighted mean difference (WMD) = −5.57%; 95% CI: −7.09 to −4.04]. The effect of calcium on the iron status was mixed. The inverse dose-response association of calcium intake with the serum ferritin concentration was significant (P value = 0.0004). There was, however, no reduction in the hemoglobin concentration (WMD = 1.22g/L;  95% CI:  0.37–2.07). Conclusions The existing body of studies is insufficient to make recommendations with high confidence due to heterogeneity in designs, limitations of ferritin as an iron biomarker, and a lack of intake studies in pregnant women. Prescribing separation of prenatal calcium and iron supplements in free-living individuals is unlikely to affect the anemia burden. There is a need for effectiveness trials comparing the effects of prescribing separated intake to concurrent intake, with functional endpoints as primary outcomes and adherence to each supplement as intermediate outcomes.