Virtues and the Book of Rites

Abstract

Abstract This paper explores the meaning of Confucian de 德 (often translated as virtue) in the Book of Rites  《禮記》. Using intertextual discussions with texts supplemented by the Analects《論語》, the Mengzi  《孟子》, and the Xunzi《荀子》, I argue that ritual (li 禮) and virtue are closely interrelated. Without ritual, virtue is raw. Without virtue, ritual is barren. De’s interrelationship with ritual is central to Confucian ethics. Ritual is constitutive for all Confucian virtues. This central thesis coupled with subsequent features such as de’s aesthetic dimension and thick interpersonal relationships demonstrate that the Confucian de has multilayered meanings that cannot be fully captured by either the contemporary concept of virtue or the Aristotelian idea of arête.