Not just females: the socio-ecology of social interactions between spider monkey males

Abstract

Male–male relationships are mostly characterized by competition. However, males also cooperate with one another if socio-ecological conditions are suitable. Due to their male philopatry, the need for cooperation in home range defence and high degree of fission–fusion dynamics, spider monkeys provide an opportunity to investigate how male–male interactions are associated with socio-ecological factors, such as the presence of potentially receptive females, the degree of food availability and the likelihood of home range defence. We tested predictions about changes in social interactions between wild spider monkey males in relation to these factors. First, males did not change their interaction patterns when potentially receptive females were in the subgroup compared to when they were absent. Second, males tended to be less tolerant of one another when feeding, but spent more time grooming, in contact and proximity with one another when food availability was lower than when it was higher. Third, males exchanged fewer embraces, spent less time grooming, in proximity and in contact with one another, and spent more time vigilant at the home range boundary area than at other locations. Our findings contribute to the understanding of social flexibility and the importance of considering males in socio-ecological models of any group-living species.