Toward Robotic Sensing and Swimming in Granular Environments using Underactuated Appendages

Abstract

Granular environments, such as sand, are one of the most challenging substrates for robots to move within due to large depth‐dependent forces, unpredictable fluid/solid resistance forces, and limited sensing capabilities. An untethered robot is presented, inspired by biological diggers like sea turtles, which utilize underactuated appendages to enable propulsion and obstacle sensing in granular environments. To guide the robot's design, experiments are conducted on test appendages to identify the morphological and actuation parameters for forward thrust generation. Obstacle sensing is observed in granular media by measuring the increased force on the moving appendage caused by changes in the granular flow around it. These results are integrated into an untethered robot capable of subsurface locomotion in a controlled granular bed like natural, loosely packed sand. The robot achieves subsurface “swimming” at a speed of 1.2 mm s−1, at a depth of 127 mm, faster than any other reported untethered robot at this depth, while also detecting obstacles during locomotion via force sensors embedded in the appendages. Finally, subsurface robot locomotion in natural sand at the beach is demonstrated, a feat no other robot has accomplished, showcasing how underactuated structures enable movement and sensing in granular environments with limited limb control.