Effect of Cleavage Rate and Stress Level on Apparent Surface Energies of Rocks

Abstract

Abstract As fractures are propagated through rocks, energy is absorbed near the extending crack tip. Apparent surface energies for several rocks have been measured by cleavage under dynamic conditions. At nominal crack velocities from 0.5 to 500 in./min. measurements showed that fractures propagated in discrete jumps. Calculated surface energies and moduli were relatively insensitive to nominal rate of cleavage. In another set of experiments, rocks were cleaved under high confining stresses. The rocks were submerged in low leak-off fluids which formed a filter cake on the freshly cleaved surfaces (similar to the hydraulic fracturing process). Apparent surface energies were increased substantially as the surrounding fluid pressure was increased. Moduli in bending increased significantly upon application of the first 1,000 psi but were insensitive to stress level at greater pressures. INTRODUCTION For almost 20 years, hydraulic fracturing processes have been utilized effectively to stimulate oil and gas wells. During this period, some process improvements have resulted from studies of fracture orientation, mechanics of fracturing, areas generated, conductivities of cracks, etc. Yet many questions remain concerning the conditions and pressures needed during fracture propagation. In this paper we will report additional studies of the mechanics of fracture extension. It was shown previously3 that large rock samples could be cleaved under controlled conditions so as to measure the apparent surface energy (that amount of energy absorbed per unit area of new surface created). In this paper we consider the effects of two additional factors on surface energies, viz.:effect of cleavage rate andeffect of confining stress level. THEORY Cleavage experiments were conducted on rock samples similar to that illustrated in Fig. 1. Blocks of rock several inches wide, 2- to 3-in. thick, and up to 3 ft in length were grooved longitudinally with shallow guide slots. A crack was initiated and allowed to extend along the web as the top of the rock specimen was pulled (or pushed) apart. Auxiliary equipment permits the measurement offorce applied at the top,separation at the top andcrack length. (Further experimental details will be given in the next section.) The rock beams created by the crack are considered to' be cantilever beams. The deflection (or separation of the rock beams) at any point is calculated4,5 by the beam Eq. 1.