Anoxic and Ischemic Injury of Myelinated Axons in CNS White Matter: From Mechanistic Concepts to Therapeutics

Abstract

White matter of the brain and spinal cord is susceptible to anoxia and ischemia. Irreversible injury to this tissue can have serious consequences for the overall function of the CNS through disruption of signal transmission. Myelinated axons of the CNS are critically dependent on a continuous supply of energy largely generated through oxidative phosphorylation. Anoxia and ischemia cause rapid energy depletion, failure of the Na+−K+-ATPase, and accumulation of axoplasmic Na+through noninactivating Na+channels, with concentrations approaching 100 mmol/L after 60 minutes of anoxia. Coupled with severe K+depletion that results in large membrane depolarization, high [Na+]istimulates reverse Na+–Ca2+exchange and axonal Ca2+overload. A component of Ca2+entry occurs directly through Na+channels. The excessive accumulation of Ca2+in turn activates various Ca2+-dependent enzymes, such as calpain, phospholipases, and protein kinase C, resulting in irreversible injury. The latter enzyme may be involved in “autoprotection,” triggered by release of endogenous γ-aminobutyric acid and adenosine, by modulation of certain elements responsible for deregulation of ion homeostasis. Glycolytic block, in contrast to anoxia alone, appears to preferentially mobilize internal Ca2+stores; as control of internal Ca2+pools is lost, excessive release from this compartment may itself contribute to axonal damage. Reoxygenation paradoxically accelerates injury in many axons, possibly as a result of severe mitochondrial Ca2+overload leading to a secondary failure of respiration. Although glia are relatively resistant to anoxia, oligodendrocytes and the myelin sheath may be damaged by glutamate released by reverse Na+–glutamate transport. Use-dependent Na+channel blockers, particularly charged compounds such as QX-314, are highly neuroprotective in vitro, but only agents that exist partially in a neutral form, such as mexiletine and tocainide, are effective after systemic administration, because charged species cannot penetrate the blood–brain barrier easily.These concepts may also apply to other white matter disorders, such as spinal cord injury or diffuse axonal injury in brain trauma. Moreover, whereas many events are unique to white matter injury, a number of steps are common to both gray and white matter anoxia and ischemia. Optimal protection of the CNS as a whole will therefore require combination therapy aimed at unique steps in gray and white matter regions, or intervention at common points in the injury cascades.