Drawing on four decades of research, the book traces on earlier models and offers an expanded and updated theory of language policy and management. The book surveys the language practices and planning efforts of individuals, families, private and public institutions, local and national advocates and managers, and regional and national governments. By starting with the individual (rather than as in traditional models with the state) and moving through different levels and domains, the book shows the many other policies with which a state government must compete and helps reveal why national language management is so difficult. It draws on detailed descriptions of many countries in Africa, Europe, Asia and the Pacific, and deals with language endangerment and shift, the power of treaties and international movements, and the interference of natural and man-made non-linguistic forces like earthquakes, wars, and corruption.