Abstract
The European Reformation saw a dramatic rise of new confessional groups, sects and schisms, accompanied by widespread group hostility and violence. In a critical discussion of Elias’ ‘civilizing process’, the key changes ushered by the Reformation, from the government of state, church, and souls, are considered. As society sought to expunge its ‘ultimate enemies’, the era of reform was a time of widespread witchcraft trials, trials that are examples of horrific social disfiguration, with continued relevance to understanding modern social and group violence. Several examples of the latter are considered.