Measuring Individual Differences in the Perfect Automation Schema

Abstract

Objective A self-report measure of the perfect automation schema (PAS) is developed and tested. Background Researchers have hypothesized that the extent to which users possess a PAS is associated with greater decreases in trust after users encounter automation errors. However, no measure of the PAS currently exists. We developed a self-report measure assessing two proposed PAS factors: high expectations and all-or-none thinking about automation performance. Method In two studies, participants responded to our PAS measure, interacted with imperfect automated aids, and reported trust. Results Each of the two PAS measure factors demonstrated fit to the hypothesized factor structure and convergent and discriminant validity when compared with propensity to trust machines and trust in a specific aid. However, the high expectations and all-or-none thinking scales showed low intercorrelations and differential relationships with outcomes, suggesting that they might best be considered two separate constructs rather than two subfactors of the PAS. All-or-none thinking had significant associations with decreases in trust following aid errors, whereas high expectations did not. Results therefore suggest that the all-or-none thinking scale may best represent the PAS construct. Conclusion Our PAS measure (specifically, the all-or-none thinking scale) significantly predicted the severe trust decreases thought to be associated with high PAS. Further, it demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties across two samples. Application This measure may be used in future work to assess levels of PAS in users of automated systems in either research or applied settings.