Revolution

Abstract

Earlier work formulated an evolutionary theory of the formation, alteration and transformation of social rule systems such as normative orders and institutional arrangements. The theory specifies processes of the generation of variety in social rules, retention and transmission of rules, and the selection of rules. It stresses the role of human agents in generating variety and change, in structuring and manipulating selective processes and in the diffusion and transmission of new systems. This article applies the theory to problems of conceptualizing and analysing revolution, that is, major transformations of social orders. The authors focus on cases of agential driven processes of transformation. Three general types of agent-generated change are identified and illustrated. (1) A dominant elite changes its paradigm of social order and uses its power to bring about transformation of the existing order. (2) Through a power shift, an established elite is replaced by an elite or coalition of elites with a different paradigm of social order which frames and guides the establishment of new institutional arrangements. These two types of transformation typically entail decisive events and actions, carried out by identifiable agents engaged in relatively well-defined `founding moments'. They are `legislative' in character. (3) `Organic' transformation entails the accumulative and aggregate effect of `small' actions and developments that add up to a major macro-transformation. The three types of transformation entail directed problem-solving and adaptation - such as the development of new theories or paradigms, new technologies and institutional reforms. Variety is generated in a way very different from undirected forms envisioned in biological evolutionary theory. Also different are key concepts such as institutionalized social power, competition for power and unintended consequences of directed problem-solving. In particular: (1) the distribution of systemic power enables certain agents to introduce (or to block) problem-solving and innovation processes; (2) social competition among revolutionary agents drives and radicalizes directed problem-solving and transformation processes; (3) directed problem-solving and adaptive processes in complex systems make for unintended, often problematic, developments.