Orthopraxy and Heteropraxy beyond the State

Abstract

This essay assesses James L. Watson’s argument that ritual orthopraxy promoted by the state and local elites played a key role in the formation of cultural unity in late imperial China. After opening with a brief review of Watson’s previous scholarship on standardization and cultural unity, it focuses on two case studies about nonstate processes of standardization that accompanied but did not necessarily mimic those of the state. The first concerns the cult of one of the most popular plague-fighting deities in late imperial China, Marshal Wen (Wen Yuanshuai), whose cult was promoted by Taoists who strove to promote liturgical orthopraxy by insisting that Taoist deities should only receive vegetarian offerings and Taoist titles. The second concerns sacrifices to banners ( jiqi) performed by officials, local militias, bandits, rebels, and members of secret societies. Of particular interest here are the ways in which people belonging to the latter three groups adopted the state’s practice of banner worship while also reformulating its nature and significance.