Kinetochore-independent mechanisms of sister chromosome separation

Abstract

ABSTRACTAlthough kinetochores normally play a key role in sister chromatid separation and segregation, chromosome fragments lacking kinetochores (acentrics) can in some cases separate and segregate successfully. InDrosophilaneuroblasts, acentric chromosomes undergo delayed, but otherwise normal sister separation, revealing the existence of kinetochore-independent mechanisms driving sister chromosome separation. Bulk cohesin removal from the acentric is not delayed, suggesting factors other than cohesin are responsible for the delay in acentric sister separation. In contrast to intact kinetochore-bearing chromosomes, we discovered that acentrics align parallel as well as perpendicular to the mitotic spindle. In addition, sister acentrics undergo unconventional patterns of separation. For example, rather than the simultaneous separation of sisters, acentrics oriented parallel to the spindle often slide past one another toward opposing poles. To identify the mechanisms driving acentric separation, we screened 117 RNAi gene knockdowns for synthetic lethality with acentric chromosome fragments. In addition to well-established DNA repair and checkpoint mutants, this candidate screen identified synthetic lethality with X-chromosome-derived acentric fragments in knockdowns of Greatwall (cell cycle kinase), EB1 (microtubule plus-end tracking protein), and Map205 (microtubule-stabilizing protein). Additional image-based screening revealed that reductions in Topoisomerase II levels disrupted sister acentric separation. Intriguingly, live imaging revealed that knockdowns of EB1, Map205, and Greatwall preferentially disrupted the sliding mode of sister acentric separation. Based on our analysis of EB1 localization and knockdown phenotypes, we propose that in the absence of a kinetochore, microtubule plus-end dynamics provide the force to resolve DNA catenations required for sister separation.AUTHOR SUMMARYKinetochores, the site on the chromosomes to which microtubules attach driving the separation and segregation of replicated sister chromosomes, have been viewed as essential for proper cell division and accurate transmission of chromosomes into daughter cells. However previous studies demonstrated that sister chromosomes lacking kinetochores (acentrics) often undergo separation, segregation and transmission. Here we demonstrate that sister acentrics are held together through DNA intertwining. We show that during anaphase, acentric sister separation is achieved through Topoisomerase activity, an enzyme that resolves these DNA linkages, as well as forces generated on the acentrics by the growing ends of highly dynamic microtubule polymers. We found that acentric sister chromatids display unique patterns of separation using mechanisms independent of the kinetochore. Additionally, we identified the specific microtubule-associated proteins required for the successful mitotic transmission of acentric chromosomes to daughter cells. These studies reveal unsuspected, distinct forces that likely act on all chromosomes during mitosis independent of kinetochore-microtubule attachments.