The paradox of obligate sex: the roles of sexual conflict and mate scarcity in transitions to facultative and obligate asexuality

Abstract

ABSTRACTRecent theory suggests that male coercion could contribute to the maintenance of obligate sex. However, it is unclear how sexually antagonistic coevolution might interact with mate scarcity to influence the probability of invasions of obligately sexual populations by mutants capable of parthenogenetic reproduction. Furthermore, if invasion does occur, it is unclear which factors promote or prevent the complete loss of sex. Using individual-based models, we show that male coercion cannot prevent the invasion of a mutant allele that gives virgin females the ability to reproduce parthenogenetically because mutants always benefit by producing at least some offspring asexually prior to mating. Indeed, the likelihood of invasion generally increases as sexual conflict intensifies, and the effects of sexual conflict and mate scarcity can interact in complex ways to promote invasion. Nonetheless, we find that coercion prevents the complete loss of sex unless linkage disequilibrium can build up between the mutant allele and alleles for effective female resistance. Our findings clarify how costs and limitations of female resistance can promote the maintenance of sexual reproduction, turning sex into an evolutionary trap. At the same time, our results highlight the need to explain why facultative reproductive strategies so rarely evolve in nature.