Mitochondrial phylogeography of grassland caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Lymantriinae:Gynaephora) endemic to the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Abstract

AbstractGrassland caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Lymantriinae:Gynaephora) are the most damaging pests to alpine meadows in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). Here, we conducted extensive sampling from 39 geographic populations covering almost the entire distribution of the eightGynaephoraspecies in the QTP to investigate phylogeographic patterns and speciation based on two mitochondrial genes (cox1andnad5). A total of 40 haplotypes were detected in the 39 populations, with >70% of haplotypes specific to single population. The monophyletic QTPGynaephoramigrated from non-QTP regions during the Pliocene, corresponding to the uplift of the QTP, suggesting a mode of transport into the QTP. Among the eight QTPGynaephoraspecies described by morphological characteristics, two species (G. alpherakiiandG. menyuanensis) were recovered as monophyletic groups (Clades B and C), while the remaining six species formed two monophyletic clades: Clade A (G. qinghaiensis,G. jiuzhiensis, andG. qumalaiensis) and Clade D (G. aureate,G. rouergensis, andG. minora). These results suggested that the number of the QTPGynaephoraspecies may be overestimated and further studies based on both morphological and nuclear gene data are needed. Genetic differentiation and speciation were driven by intensive uplifts of the QTP and associated climate fluctuations during the Pleistocene, suggesting that isolation and subsequent divergence was the dominant mode of speciation. The Sanjiangyuan region (i.e., Clade A, characterized by high genetic diversity) may have been a glacial refugium of the QTPGynaephora, as supported by analyses of gene flow and biogeography. High levels of genetic diversity were found in QTPGynaephora,without population expansion, which may explain the high-altitude adaptation and outbreaks of grassland caterpillars in alpine meadows of the QTP. This study provides the largest phylogeographic analysis of QTPGynaephoraand improves our understanding of the diversity and speciation of QTP insects.