The Individual and Social Determinants of COVID-19 Diagnosis in Ontario, Canada: A Population-Wide Study

Abstract

AbstractBackgroundOptimizing the public health response to reduce coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) burden necessitates characterizing population-level heterogeneity of COVID-19 risks. However, heterogeneity in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) testing may introduce biased estimates depending on analytic design.MethodsWe explored the potential for collider bias and characterized individual, environmental, and social determinants of testing and diagnosis using cross-sectional analyses among 14.7 million community-dwelling people in Ontario, Canada. Among those diagnosed, we used separate analytic designs to compare predictors of: 1) individuals testing positive versus negative; 2) symptomatic individuals only testing positive versus testing negative; and 3) individuals testing positive versus individuals not testing positive (i.e., testing negative or not being tested). Analyses included tests conducted between March 1 and June 20, 2020.ResultsOf a total of 14,695,579 individuals, 758,691 were tested for SARS-CoV-2, of whom 25,030 (3.3%) tested positive. The further the odds of testing from the null, the more variability observed in the odds of diagnosis across analytic design, particularly among individual factors. There was less variability in testing by social determinants across analytic designs. Residing in areas with highest household density (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.86; 95%CI: 1.75-1.98), highest proportion of essential workers (aOR: 1.58; 95%CI: 1.48-1.69), lowest educational attainment (aOR: 1.33; 95%CI: 1.26-1.41), and highest proportion of recent immigrants (aOR: 1.10; 95%CI: 1.05-1.15) were consistently related to increased odds of SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis regardless of analytic design.InterpretationWhere testing is limited, risk factors may be better estimated using population comparators rather than test-negative comparators. Optimizing COVID-19 responses necessitates investment and sufficient coverage of structural interventions tailored to heterogeneity in social determinants of risk, including household crowding, occupation, and structural racism.