Systems of cardinal numerals in languages around the world

Abstract

This paper is an in-depth discussion of the diversity of counting systems developed by different peoples, which manifests itself both in lexical differences/similarities of the terms used for numerals, and in diverse operational schemes for the abstract numbering of things. The goal of the study was to bind together and clarify the variety of the counting systems that were found. During communication, speakers of languages with different counting systems face the difficulty of translating words which describe quantity, i.e. numerals. The widely used decimal system is also not devoid of surprising features. The present study focused on analysing various complex systems of counting in terms of both vocabulary and conceptual methods used by different peoples. The research data collected from academic literature provide numerous examples. The comparative method is used to show how extraordinarily inventable different civilizations were in approaching the problem of defining quantity. Particular attention is paid to the phenomenon of using specific things, such as hands, fingers, and animal names, to create counting systems. A case study of the numerals of some Austronesian languages demonstrates that a whole associative row can be traced, revealing that long ago respective peoples solidified the abstract concept of quantity into simple and clear definitions based on real things. The main result of the study is a comparison of more than 20 counting systems. The abundance of examples substantiates the idea of how many unexpectedly different and original numbering methods were used by the ancestors of different peoples and how many of them are still supported by their descendants and even unwittingly ensconced in the modern technological civilization. This paper is also supplemented by a review of the systems of birth-order names for children in several languages of the Indo-Pacific region and America.