Perceived Pain and Smoking Interrelations and Expectancies Are Associated With Pain and Smoking Cessation in Individuals With Mobility Impairments

Abstract

Abstract Introduction Smoking and pain are highly prevalent among individuals with mobility impairments (MIs; use assistive devices to ambulate). The role of pain-related smoking motives and expectancies in smoking cessation is unknown. We examined cross-sectional and prospective associations between a novel measure of pain-related smoking motives (how smokers with pain perceive their pain and smoking to be interrelated) and pain and smoking behavior in smokers with MI. Methods This is a secondary data analysis of a smoking cessation induction trial (N = 263; 55% female) in smokers with MI. Participants did not have to want to quit to enroll. Pain-related smoking motives and expectancies were assessed at baseline with the pain and smoking inventory (PSI) which measures perceived pain and smoking interrelations in three distinct but related domains (smoking to cope with pain, pain as a motivator of smoking and as a barrier to cessation). Other measures included pain occurrence and interference, nicotine dependence, motivation and self-efficacy to quit smoking, and number of cigarettes per day. Biochemically verified smoking abstinence was assessed at 6 months. Results PSI scores were significantly higher among smokers with chronic pain occurrence compared to occasional and to no occurrence (p < .002) and were associated with greater pain interference (ps < .01) and lower self-efficacy to quit smoking (ps < .01). In prospective analyses adjusted for age, treatment group, and chronic pain, only expectancies of smoking to help cope with pain predicted lower odds of abstinence. Conclusions Targeting expectancies of smoking as a mechanism to cope with pain may be useful in increasing smoking cessation in pain populations. Implications Individuals with MI have a high prevalence of smoking and pain, yet the extent to which this population perceives pain and smoking to be interrelated is unknown. This is the first article to examine prospective associations between a novel measure of perceived pain and smoking interrelations (PSI) and smoking outcomes. The PSI was associated with greater pain and lower self-efficacy for quitting. Prospectively, the PSI subscale tapping into expectancies that smoking help coping with pain predicted a lower probability of smoking abstinence. In smokers with MI, expectancies of smoking as pain-coping mechanism may be an important clinical target.