Morphometrics and Phylogenomics of Coca (Erythroxylum spp.) Illuminate Its Reticulate Evolution, With Implications for Taxonomy

Author:

Przelomska Natalia A S123ORCID,Diaz Rudy A2ORCID,Ávila Fabio Andrés4ORCID,Ballen Gustavo A56ORCID,Cortés-B Rocío7ORCID,Kistler Logan3ORCID,Chitwood Daniel H89ORCID,Charitonidou Martha10ORCID,Renner Susanne S11ORCID,Pérez-Escobar Oscar A2ORCID,Antonelli Alexandre21213ORCID

Affiliation:

1. School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth , Portsmouth PO1 2DY , UK

2. Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE , UK

3. Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution , Washington DC 20560 , USA

4. The New York Botanical Garden , New York, NY 10458 , USA

5. Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista , Botucatu, São Paulo , Brazil

6. School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London , London E1 4NS , UK

7. Herbario Forestal Universidad Distrital, Campus El Vivero , CR 5E 15-82 Bogotá , Colombia

8. Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University , East Lansing, MI 48824 , USA

9. Department of Computational Mathematics, Science & Engineering, Michigan State University , East Lansing, MI 48824 , USA

10. Department of Biological Applications and Technology, University of Ioannina , 45110 Ioannina , Greece

11. Department of Biology, Washington University , Saint Louis, MO 63130 , USA

12. Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg , SE 41319 Göteborg , Sweden

13. Department of Biology, University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3RB , UK

Abstract

Abstract South American coca (Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense) has been a keystone crop for many Andean and Amazonian communities for at least 8,000 years. However, over the last half-century, global demand for its alkaloid cocaine has driven intensive agriculture of this plant and placed it in the center of armed conflict and deforestation. To monitor the changing landscape of coca plantations, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime collects annual data on their areas of cultivation. However, attempts to delineate areas in which different varieties are grown have failed due to limitations around identification. In the absence of flowers, identification relies on leaf morphology, yet the extent to which this is reflected in taxonomy is uncertain. Here, we analyze the consistency of the current naming system of coca and its four closest wild relatives (the “coca clade”), using morphometrics, phylogenomics, molecular clocks, and population genomics. We include name-bearing type specimens of coca's closest wild relatives E. gracilipes and E. cataractarum. Morphometrics of 342 digitized herbarium specimens show that leaf shape and size fail to reliably discriminate between species and varieties. However, the statistical analyses illuminate that rounder and more obovate leaves of certain varieties could be associated with the subtle domestication syndrome of coca. Our phylogenomic data indicate extensive gene flow involving E. gracilipes which, combined with morphometrics, supports E. gracilipes being retained as a single species. Establishing a robust evolutionary-taxonomic framework for the coca clade will facilitate the development of cost-effective genotyping methods to support reliable identification.

Funder

Swedish Research Council

Kew Foundation

FAPESP

BBSRC

Publisher

Oxford University Press (OUP)

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