Impact of the inaccessible genome on genotype imputation and genome-wide association studies

Abstract

Abstract Genotype imputation is widely used in genome-wide association studies (GWAS). However, both the genotyping chips and imputation reference panels are dependent on next-generation sequencing (NGS). Due to the nature of NGS, some regions of the genome are inaccessible to sequencing. To date, there has been no complete evaluation of these regions and their impact on the identification of associations in GWAS remains unclear. In this study, we systematically assess the extent to which variants in inaccessible regions are underrepresented on genotyping chips and imputation reference panels, in GWAS results and in variant databases. We also determine the proportion of genes located in inaccessible regions and compare the results across variant masks defined by the 1000 Genomes Project and the TOPMed program. Overall, fewer variants were observed in inaccessible regions in all categories analyzed. Depending on the mask used and normalized for region size, only 4%–17% of the genotyped variants are located in inaccessible regions and 52 to 581 genes were almost completely inaccessible. From the Cooperative Health Research in South Tyrol (CHRIS) study, we present a case study of an association located in an inaccessible region that is driven by genotyped variants and cannot be reproduced by imputation in GRCh37. We conclude that genotyping, NGS, genotype imputation and downstream analyses such as GWAS and fine mapping are systematically biased in inaccessible regions, due to missed variants and spurious associations. To help researchers assess gene and variant accessibility, we provide an online application (https://gab.gm.eurac.edu).