Grammatical Universals?

Abstract

Abstract This chapter extends the analysis of the grammar of Indian English (IndE) in Part I to a comparison with Singapore English (SgE). We explore subtle grammatical differences and similarities between IndE and SgE that arose under distinct historical conditions. The chapter assesses competing accounts of why specific combinations of features developed in these two varieties. The findings reinforce the earlier conclusion that language transfer is the stronger source of change, with almost no evidence for broad universals. The two mechanisms of change proposed are direct substrate transfer, where the substrate (L1) involves overt and obligatory morphology and English offers no direct counterpart, and an indirect role of the substrate when the L1 lacks a form, leading to a reorganization of the grammar and novel “third grammar” systems.