Infant Anthropometry and Growth Velocity Before 6 Months are Associated with Breastfeeding Practices and the Presence of Subclinical Mastitis and Maternal Intestinal Protozoa in Indigenous Communities in Guatemala

Abstract

ABSTRACT Background The possibility that maternal health status and breastfeeding practices contribute to growth faltering before 6 mo is underexplored. Objectives This longitudinal study investigated whether indicators of subclinical mastitis (SCM) and breast inflammation, maternal fecal-oral contamination, and/or breastfeeding practices were associated with infant anthropometry or growth velocity before 6 mo. Methods Indigenous Mam-Mayan mother-infant dyads (n = 140) were recruited. Breast milk was collected at early (<6 wk) and established (4–6 mo) lactation when maternal and infant anthropometry were measured. Milk Na:K ratio as an indicator of SCM and concentrations of 4 proinflammatory cytokines were measured. Maternal stool samples were examined for the presence of intestinal parasites including nonpathogenic protozoa (Endolimax nana, Iodamoeba bütschlii, Entamoeba coli, Blastocystis hominis). Questionnaires characterized breastfeeding and hygiene practices. Multiple linear regression identified factors associated with infant growth attainment [weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), length-for-age z-score (LAZ), and head circumference-for-age z-score (HCAZ)] and growth velocity (expressed as change per day from early to established lactation). Multiple logistic regression identified factors associated with increased odds of underweight, stunting, and low head circumference at both lactation stages. Results A higher Na:K ratio, individual nonpathogenic protozoa, and specific breastfeeding and hygiene practices were associated with impaired growth before 6 wk and at 4–6 mo in exclusively breastfed infants. Growth velocity for weight was inversely associated with Entamoeba coli but cranial growth was associated positively with Iodamoeba bütschlii whereas feeding colostrum in early lactation was protective and decreased the odds of an HCAZ < −2 SD. Finally, the presence of SCM in early lactation increased the likelihood of both WAZ < −2 SD and LAZ < −2 SD by 6 wk. Conclusions Prevention of SCM can improve early infant weight, but measures that promote the feeding of colostrum and reduce exposure to fecal-oral contamination might be required to minimize infant growth faltering in breastfed infants.