Beliefs About Medicines Predict Side-Effects of Placebo Modafinil

Abstract

Abstract Background Patients receiving placebo in clinical trials often report side-effects (nocebo effects), but contributing factors are still poorly understood. Purpose Using a sham trial of the cognition-enhancing “smart pill” Modafinil we tested whether medication beliefs and other psychological factors predicted detection and attribution of symptoms as side-effects to placebo. Methods Healthy students (n = 201) completed measures assessing beliefs about medication, perceived sensitivity to medicines, negative affectivity, somatization, and body awareness; 66 were then randomized to receive Deceptive Placebo (told Modafinil–given placebo, 67 to Open Placebo (told placebo–given placebo, and 68 to No Placebo. Memory and attention tasks assessed cognitive enhancement. Nocebo effects were assessed by symptom checklist. Results More symptoms were reported in the Deceptive Placebo condition (M = 2.65; SD = 2.27) than Open Placebo (M = 1.92; SD = 2.24; Mann–Whitney U = 1,654, z = 2.30, p = .022) or No Placebo (M = 1.68; SD = 1.75, Mann–Whitney U = 1,640, z = 2.74, p = .006). Participants were more likely to attribute symptoms to Modafinil side-effects if they believed pharmaceuticals to be generally harmful (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.70, p = .019), had higher perceived sensitivity to medicines (IRR = 1.68, p = .011), stronger concerns about Modafinil (IRR = 2.10, p < .001), and higher negative affectivity (IRR = 2.37, p < .001). Conclusions Beliefs about medication are potentially modifiable predictors of the nocebo effect. These findings provide insight into side-effect reports to placebo and, potentially, active treatment.