Bayesian kernel machine regression for count data: modelling the association between social vulnerability and COVID-19 deaths in South Carolina

Abstract

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic created an unprecedented global health crisis. Recent studies suggest that socially vulnerable communities were disproportionately impacted, although findings are mixed. To quantify social vulnerability in the US, many studies rely on the Social Vulnerability Index (SVI), a county-level measure comprising 15 census variables. Typically, the SVI is modelled in an additive manner, which may obscure non-linear or interactive associations, further contributing to inconsistent findings. As a more robust alternative, we propose a negative binomial Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) model to investigate dynamic associations between social vulnerability and COVID-19 death rates, thus extending BKMR to the count data setting. The model produces a ‘vulnerability effect’ that quantifies the impact of vulnerability on COVID-19 death rates in each county. The method can also identify the relative importance of various SVI variables and make future predictions as county vulnerability profiles evolve. To capture spatio-temporal heterogeneity, the model incorporates spatial effects, county-level covariates, and smooth temporal functions. For Bayesian computation, we propose a tractable data-augmented Gibbs sampler. We conduct a simulation study to highlight the approach and apply the method to a study of COVID-19 deaths in the US state of South Carolina during the 2021 calendar year.