Forest tent caterpillar (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) across Canada, 1938–2001: II. Emergent periodicity from asynchronous eruptive anomalies

Abstract

Abstract Using aerial sketch map data spanning more than 1 000 000 km2 across Canada, I use cluster analysis to show that outbreaks of forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria Hübner (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae), through the 20th century have occurred regularly every decade or so; however, there are two distinct aspects to the patterning of outbreaks. The dominant mode of variability is a nonrecurring pattern of singular spike anomalies, lasting just a few years, that are regional in extent but are not synchronised across the country. The regional time series derived from cluster analysis that are dominated by these singular spike eruptions exhibit extreme skewness and kurtosis, are not stationary in mean or variance, and are not amenable to classical time-series analysis. Although these regional-scale eruptive anomalies tend to occur periodically in aggregate, their central location always varies in an unpredictable manner, resulting in aperiodic local behaviour. Range-wide periodicity is thus an emergent property from asynchronous, aperiodic eruptions aggregated across regions. The second mode of variability is a low-amplitude fluctuation of weak periodicity that is weakly synchronised across the country. These observations support a hybrid cyclic–eruptive theory of outbreak occurrence that is not consistent with the simpler idea of spatially synchronised cycling.