1. This bibliography is current through April 1, 2023.
2. DOI: 10.1089/glr2.2023.0008 © 2023 Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. Columbus discovered America in 1492, his crews had playing cards (and possibly dice) with them. It is a matter of debate whether any betting occurred.7Pirate ships, on the other hand, expressly banned gambling to maintain order.8The U.S. Navy, established in 1775, continues to have this same policy for the same reason.9 10.1089/glr2.2023.0008
3. Gambling on Mississippi riverboats (1820-90). Initially, riverboat gambling was conducted by honest gamblers who won through their superior skill. Later, it became the redoubt of cardsharps. A lack of federal and state regulation allowed these games to flourish. The Civil War halted such gambling; when peace returned, the riverboats found themselves increasingly displaced by a new mode of transportation: railroads.10Nevertheless, the riverboat gamblersmooth, well dressed, and with more than a little larceny in his heart-lives on as an instantly recognizable figure,11in no small part because of Mark Twain's writings.12
4. Gambling on ships anchored off the coast of Southern California (1928-39). Stationed just beyond the three-mile limit (the traditional dividing line between state waters and the high seas), these ships used small boats ("taxis") to ferry gamblers back and forth. In 1939, Attorney General Earl Warren put these casinos out of business by convincing the California Supreme Court that the state's anti-gambling laws extended 15 miles from shore.13To prevent future invasions, California convinced Congress to pass the Gambling Ship Act of 1949 ("GSA"),14which outlaws shipboard gambling.15
5. Gambling on cruise ships on the high seas (since 1975). In 1975, Carnival Cruise Lines opened a full casino on its Mardi Gras