1. Richard Rosecrance, The Rise of the Trading State: Commerce and Conquest in the Modern World (New York: Basic Books, 1986).
2. Jennifer Lind criticizes the conventional wisdom that portrays Japan as a “military pygmy,” arguing that the nation has become “one of the world’s foremost military powers.” Jennifer Lind, “Pacifism or Passing the Buck? Testing Theories of Japanese Security Policy,” International Security 29 (2004): 93. She uses aggregate defense spending as a measure of military power. By comparing Japan’s defense spending and actual military capabilities with those of other advanced industrial nations, she makes a valid point that Japan is by no means a militarily weak state. My argument is that Japan’s military power is disproportionate to its economic size. In other words, Japan spends less on defense than we would expect a country of Japan’s economic power might otherwise spend. On this score, Japan stands out as an anomaly.
3. Thomas U. Berger, Cultures of Antimilitarism: National Security in Germany and Japan (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 1.
4. Mancur Olson and Richard Zeckhauser, “An Economic Theory of Alliances,” Review of Economics and Statistics 48 (1966): 266–279;
5. Donald C. Hellmann, Japan and East Asia: The New International Order (New York: Praeger, 1974);