1. For theoretical and empirical underpinnings of this statement, see Seymour Martin Lipset, Martin A. Trow, and James S. Coleman, Union Democracy: The Internal Politics of the International Typographical Union (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1977);
2. and Gary Marks, Unions in Politics: Britain, Germany and the United States in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989).
3. As Jonathan Barker has shown for Senegal’s rural areas, the factional leader is an intermediary between other factions lower and higher on the pyramid of clan groupings that exist between the individual and the state, whose personal status depends on the ability to provide flows of material resources. This authority, however, is highly precarious, since “factional leaders at lower levels can transform their loyalties from one higher-level faction to another with relative impunity.” Barker, “Political Factionalism in Senegal,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 7, no. 2 (1973): 292.
4. Donal Cruise O’Brien, “Senegal,” in John Dunn, ed., West African States: Failure and Promise (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 179–80.
5. Senghor at Tunis in 1975, quoted by Christine Desouches, Le Parti démocratique sénégalaise: une opposition légale en Afrique (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1983), 28.