1. On this policy shift, see Mei-hua Lan, “China’s ‘New Administration’ in Mongolia,” in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan, eds. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 39–58.
2. See M. Sanjdorj, Manchu Chinese Colonial Rule in Northern Mongolia, trans. from the Mongolian and annotated by Urgunge Onon (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980), 32–33, on the Qing permit system;
3. and see S. C. M. Paine, Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), 279, on Mongolian debt.
4. A variety of sources spin the events of 1911–1921 in different ways. See, for instance, C. R. Bawden, The Modern History of Mongolia (New York: Praeger, 1968), 187–205;
5. Liu Xiaoyuan, Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911–1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006), 6–9; and S. C. M. Paine, Imperial Rivals, 287–342.