1. Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 52–65;
2. Arnulf Becker Lorca, “Universal International Law: Nineteenth-Century Histories of Imposition and Appropriation,” Harvard International Law Journal 51.2 (2010): 486–503.
3. Turan Kayaoglu, Legal Imperialism: Sovereignty and Extraterritoriality in Japan, the Ottoman Empire, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 1–16.
4. Gong declares that the “standard of civilization” was “implicit” until Wheaton articulated it in his 1846 edition (The Standard of “Civilization” in International Society, 26–27), while Anghie points to the 1866 edition of Wheaton as a major iteration of the civilized nature of the international community (Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law, 53). By contrast, Martti Koskeniemmi emphasizes Lorimer’s work of 1883, in The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 129. See also Brett Bowden, “The Colonial Origins of International Law,” Journal of the History of International Law 7 (2005): 1–23. Recall that Edward Said’s Orientalism discusses the “othering” of orientals as a set of attributes defined as the inverse of European qualities.
5. Ibid., 182–189; and Zhaojie Li, “International Law in China: Legal Aspect of the Chinese Perspective of World Order” (PhD diss., University of Toronto, 1995), 273–280.