1. The gap between neoliberalism’s approach to state intervention and the continued emphasis on the importance of state intervention held by several Brazilian state leaders, such as Cardoso and Lula, needs to be put into the context of the Latin American neostructuralist theory of economic development. It was the continued emphasis on “politics” and “institutions” that gave neostructuralism an advantage over a conventional neoliberal approach to development. As Fernando Ignacio Leiva explains, although this emphasis on politics and the state indicates a gap between neoliberalism and neostructruralism, “it is safely penned within the parameters prescribed by the United States’ new institutionalist economics: overcoming market failure, reduction of transaction costs, coordination, and risk management in the context of globally integrated markets.” Fernando Ignacio Leiva, Latin American Neostructuralism: The Contradictions of Post-Neoliberal Development (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 32.
2. Ruy Mauro Marini, “Brazilian Subimperialism,” Monthly Review 23.9 (1972): 15–20. Marini believed that the dynamic of subimperialism originated in processes operating within a country’s domestic political economy. It was based on an integrationist, yet antagonistic, relationship between domestic capital and imperialism, in that industrial production and expansion during the 1960s was based on the superexploitation of the working class and was not matched by a domestic market able to absorb its production. This led to an extreme polarization in the domestic class structure, which engendered marked political tensions.
3. Daniel Zirker, “Brazilian Foreign Policy and Subimperialism During the Political Transition of the 1980s: A Review and Reapplication of Marini’s Theory,” Latin American Perspectives 21.1 (1994): 120–23.
4. Peter Evans, Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State, and Local Capital in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 70–71.
5. The presidency usually rotated between the states of Sao Paulo, in which coffee production dominated, and Rio Grande do Sul, in which meat and dairy production predominated, with someone from Minais Gerais periodically replacing the latter. Edmund Amann and W. Baer, “The Roots of Brazil’s Inequality and President Lula’s Attempts to Overcome Them,” in Brazil under Lula: Economy, Politics, and Society Under the Worker-President, eds. Joseph Love and Werner Baer (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 28.