1. C. Jenks, Childhood (London: Routledge, 2005, 2nd ed.), 5; personal communication with Jenks, June 5 and 6, 2011.
2. L. Fourchard, “Lagos and the Invention of Juvenile Delinquency in Nigeria, 1920–60,” Journal of African History, 47, no. 1 (2006): 115–37; P. K. N. Ugboajah, “Culture-Conflict and Delinquency: A Case Study of Colonial Lagos,” Eras 10 (November 2008),
http://www.arts.monash.edu.au
/publications/eras/edition-10/ugboajah-article.pdf (accessed May 9, 2014).
3. T. Adewale, A Brief Overview of the Lagos State Task Force on Environmental Sanitation and Special Offences, Alausa, Ikeja, Lagos (mimeo, n.d. [2000]).In tropical Africa, “Kenya established a reformatory school in 1909, and a modified borstal system in 1924. In the Gold Coast, the Salvation Army ran a home for delinquent boys at Ada, which was formally taken over by the Department of Social Welfare in 1946. A single, borstal-type establishment, set up in Accra in 1940 for young men aged 17–21, provided some vocational training and formal education. S. Hynd, “From ‘Pickpockets’ to ‘Pilot Boys’: Juvenile Delinquency on the Gold Coast, 1920–57,” paper presented at African Studies Association of the United Kingdom Conference, St. Antony’s College, University of Oxford, September 16–19, 2010.The need for separate juvenile institutions was generally recognized, although the resources and the provision of proper facilities invariably lagged well-being and good intentions. For example, in Uganda a reformatory was proposed in 1915, an ordinance to that effect passed in 1930, but the first school was not actually opened until 1951.
4. D. Killingray, “Punishment to Fit the Crime? Penal Policy and Practice in British Colonial Africa,” in A History of Prison and Confinement in Africa, ed. F. Bernault (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003), 107.
5. W. Clifford, “The Evaluation of Methods Used for the Prevention and Treatment of Juvenile Delinquency in Africa South of the Sahara,” International Review of Criminal Policy 21 (1963): 17–31;