Allosteric coupling of substrate binding and proton translocation in MmpL3 transporter from Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Abstract

ABSTRACT Infections caused by Mycobacterium spp. are very challenging to treat, and multidrug-resistant strains rapidly spread in human populations. Major contributing factors include the unique physiological features of these bacteria, drug efflux, and the low permeability barrier of their outer membrane. Here, we focus on MmpL3 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis , an essential inner membrane transporter of the resistance–nodulation–division superfamily required for the translocation of mycolic acids in the form of trehalose monomycolates (TMM) from the cytoplasm or plasma membrane to the periplasm or outer membrane. The MmpL3-dependent transport of TMM is essential for the growth of M. tuberculosis in vitro , inside macrophages, and in M. tuberculosis- infected mice. MmpL3 is also a validated target for several recently identified anti-mycobacterial agents. In this study, we reconstituted the lipid transport activity of the purified MmpL3 using a two-lipid vesicle system and established the ability of MmpL3 to actively extract phospholipids from the outer leaflet of a lipid bilayer. In contrast, we found that MmpL3 lacks the ability to translocate the same phospholipid substrate across the plasma membrane indicating that it is not an energy-dependent flippase. The lipid extraction activity was modulated by substitutions in critical charged and polar residues of the periplasmic substrate-binding pocket of MmpL3, coupled to the proton transfer activity of MmpL3 and inhibited by a small molecule inhibitor SQ109. Based on the results, we propose a mechanism of allosteric coupling wherein substrate translocation by MmpL3 is coupled to the energy provided by the downhill transfer of protons. The reconstituted activities will facilitate understanding the mechanism of MmpL3-dependent transport of lipids and the discovery of new therapeutic options for Mycobacterium spp. infections. IMPORTANCE MmpL3 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an essential transporter involved in the assembly of the mycobacterial outer membrane. It is also an important target in undergoing efforts to discover new anti-tuberculosis drugs effective against multidrug-resistant strains spreading in human populations. The recent breakthrough structural studies uncovered features of MmpL3 that suggested a possible lipid transport mechanism. In this study, we reconstituted and characterized the lipid transport activity of MmpL3 and demonstrated that this activity is blocked by MmpL3 inhibitors and substrate mimics. We further uncovered the mechanism of how the binding of a substrate in the periplasmic domain is communicated to the transmembrane proton relay of MmpL3. The uncovered mechanism and the developed assays provide new opportunities for mechanistic analyses of MmpL3 function and its inhibition.