Affiliation:
1. Institute for Microbiology und Wine Research, Johannes Gutenberg-University, 55099 Mainz, Germany
2. Department of Life Sciences, Ewha Womans University, 120-750 Seoul, Korea
Abstract
C
4
-dicarboxylates and the C
4
-dicarboxylic amino acid
l
-aspartate support aerobic and anaerobic growth of
Escherichia coli
and related bacteria. In aerobic growth, succinate, fumarate,
D
- and
L
-malate,
L
-aspartate, and
L
-tartrate are metabolized by the citric acid cycle and associated reactions. Because of the interruption of the citric acid cycle under anaerobic conditions, anaerobic metabolism of C
4
-dicarboxylates depends on fumarate reduction to succinate (fumarate respiration). In some related bacteria (e.g.,
Klebsiella
), utilization of C
4
-dicarboxylates, such as tartrate, is independent of fumarate respiration and uses a Na
+
-dependent membrane-bound oxaloacetate decarboxylase. Uptake of the C
4
-dicarboxylates into the bacteria (and anaerobic export of succinate) is achieved under aerobic and anaerobic conditions by different sets of secondary transporters. Expression of the genes for C
4
-dicarboxylate metabolism is induced in the presence of external C
4
-dicarboxylates by the membrane-bound DcuS-DcuR two-component system. Noncommon C
4
-dicarboxylates like
l
-tartrate or
D
-malate are perceived by cytoplasmic one-component sensors/transcriptional regulators. This article describes the pathways of aerobic and anaerobic C
4
-dicarboxylate metabolism and their regulation. The citric acid cycle, fumarate respiration, and fumarate reductase are covered in other articles and discussed here only in the context of C
4
-dicarboxylate metabolism. Recent aspects of C
4
-dicarboxylate metabolism like transport, sensing, and regulation will be treated in more detail. This article is an updated version of an article published in 2004 in
EcoSal Plus
. The update includes new literature, but, in particular, the sections on the metabolism of noncommon C
4
-dicarboxylates and their regulation, on the DcuS-DcuR regulatory system, and on succinate production by engineered
E. coli
are largely revised or new.
Publisher
American Society for Microbiology
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