Host DNA Damage Response Factors Localize to Merkel Cell Polyomavirus DNA Replication Sites To Support Efficient Viral DNA Replication

Abstract

ABSTRACT Accumulating evidence indicates a role for Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in the development of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), making MCPyV the first polyomavirus to be clearly associated with human cancer. With the high prevalence of MCPyV infection and the increasing amount of MCC diagnosis, there is a need to better understand the virus and its oncogenic potential. In this study, we examined the relationship between the host DNA damage response (DDR) and MCPyV replication. We found that components of the ATM- and ATR-mediated DDR pathways accumulate in MCPyV large T antigen (LT)-positive nuclear foci in cells infected with native MCPyV virions. To further study MCPyV replication, we employed our previously established system, in which recombinant MCPyV episomal DNA is autonomously replicated in cultured cells. Similar to native MCPyV infection, where both MCPyV origin and LT are present, the host DDR machinery colocalized with LT in distinct nuclear foci. Immunofluorescence in situ hybridization and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation analysis showed that these DDR proteins and MCPyV LT in fact colocalized at the actively replicating MCPyV replication complexes, which were absent when a replication-defective LT mutant or an MCPyV-origin mutant was introduced in place of wild-type LT or wild-type viral origin. Inhibition of DDR kinases using chemical inhibitors and ATR/ATM small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown reduced MCPyV DNA replication without significantly affecting LT expression or the host cell cycle. This study demonstrates that these host DDR factors are important for MCPyV DNA replication, providing new insight into the host machinery involved in the MCPyV life cycle. IMPORTANCE MCPyV is the first polyomavirus to be clearly associated with human cancer. However, the MCPyV life cycle and its oncogenic mechanism remain poorly understood. In this report, we show that, in cells infected with native MCPyV virions, components of the ATM- and ATR-mediated DDR pathways accumulate in MCPyV LT-positive nuclear foci. Such a phenotype was recapitulated using our previously established system for visualizing MCPyV replication complexes in cells. By combining immunofluorescent staining, fluorescence in situ hybridization, and BrdU incorporation analysis, we demonstrate that DDR proteins are important for maintaining robust MCPyV DNA replication. This study not only provides the first look into the microscopic details of DDR factor/LT replication complexes at the MCPyV origin but also provides a platform for further studying the mechanistic role of host DDR factors in the MCPyV life cycle and virus-associated oncogenesis.