Detection of Misused Drugs: Psychoactive Piperazines

Abstract

In recent years, a new class of psychoactive drugs, predominantly causing adrenergic-like effects, has emerged in the market. They are identified by their piperazine backbone, possess a bridge to either a phenyl or benzyl group and are loosely defined as phenyl- and benzyl-piperazines, respectively. Detection of these drugs has traditionally focused on gas chromatography mass spectrometry assays, but these are being replaced by various liquid chromatography mass spectrometers, which enable greater resolution of the ion transition fragments and allow the identification of a wider range of recreational drugs. In contrast, there are, however, no known immunoassays (IAs) for the routine assessment of psychoactive piperazines, and evidence suggests routine IAs for amphetamine may cross-react with these piperazines. There is a variety of methods to extract, derivatise and identify piperazine moieties in biological matrices, as well as powders and tablets with a wide range of limits of detection and limits of quantitation, which are dependent on the methodology used and the technology available. When applied to identifying and quantifying analogues in powders and tablets, research has shown inconsistencies in both stated doses and the presence of unreported agents within a variety of different formulations. The analyses of biological matrices, obtained from autopsies or patients attending emergency departments, show evidence of elevated concentrations of various piperazines that may span several orders of magnitude.