Analytical Techniques Applied to Archaeological Materials

Abstract

This chapter provides a survey of the most widely used analytical methods in modern archaeological chemistry. A brief review of atomic structure leads into a summary of the basics of analytical spectrometry. The various methods of elemental analysis are treated first, starting from the historical beginnings of optical emission methods through atomic absorption to inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry, with comparisons of the analytical capabilities of each. X-ray techniques including fluorescence, electron microscopy and proton-induced X-ray emission are described in detail. Neutron activation analysis has long played a critical role in the chemical characterisation of archaeological ceramics; a section is devoted to the nuclear reactions and gamma ray measurements underpinning these measurements. Mass spectrometry is now widely used in both elemental and organic analyses, and is revolutionising the study of protein residues in archaeology. Coupling mass spectrometry with chromatographic separations in the gas and liquid phases has been essential for understanding both small molecule residues and proteins, respectively, particularly with compound-specific stable isotope analysis. Other methods that see somewhat less use in archaeological studies — including infrared and Raman, laser-induced breakdown, and cavity ring-down spectroscopies — are treated briefly. A section new to the 3rd edition discusses the issues that arise in combining or comparing new data with so-called ‘legacy data’.