Abstract
Forests in tectonically active regions are disturbed by earthquakes. Besides direct injuries to trees, earthquakes also induce stand-wide changes in hydrological conditions, whose effects on long-term forest growth and resilience remain unknown. Here we establish spatio-temporal links between global tree-ring width series and earthquakes after 1900, disentangle seismic signals from climate-induced variations in ring width series, test growth changes using superposed epoch analysis and quantify post-earthquake resilience shifts along environmental gradients in seven regions around the world. We found sites with enhanced resilience locate in relatively dry areas of temperate regions, where the response of tree growth to growing-season precipitation also increased after earthquakes. Our results provide evidence that earthquake-induced soil cracks and fractures increased precipitation infiltration to deeper soil layers and enhanced the use of water and nutrients by trees. In contrast, reduced post-earthquake resilience in regions with abundant precipitation can be explained by increased soil erosion and nutrient leaching. We conclude that seismic disturbances cause decadal-scale shifts in forest resilience under specific environmental conditions, disentangling complex interactions between lithosphere, biosphere and atmosphere. These findings can contribute to a better understanding of how the Earth system functions.
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Data availability
The reformatted dataset of the International Tree-Ring Data Bank was obtained from https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.kh0qh06. The updated raw chronologies were obtained from the International Tree-Ring Data Bank (ITRDB) (https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/paleoclimatology/tree-ring). Tree-ring width data from the ITPCAS tree-ring group are available from https://doi.org/10.11888/Terre.tpdc.271925. Historic earthquake data were obtained from the US Geological Survey (USGS) (https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/search/). Climate data were obtained from the Climate Research Unit TS v. 4.05 (https://crudata.uea.ac.uk/cru/data//hrg/). Elevation and slope data were obtained from the EarthEnv project (http://www.earthenv.org/topography). Water table depth data were obtained from http://thredds-gfnl.usc.es/thredds/catalog/GLOBALWTDFTP/catalog.html. Data on global mountain ranges were obtained from https://www.earthenv.org/mountains. Source data are provided with this paper.
Code availability
Statistical analysis in this study were performed with publicly available packages in R (version 3.6.2) and Python (version 3.8), and the figures were produced using Python. The custom code for the analysis of the data is available from https://doi.org/10.11888/Terre.tpdc.300925.
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Acknowledgements
We acknowledge all contributors to the International Tree-Ring Data Bank for providing tree-ring data and X. Chen for helpful discussions. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41988101), the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) (2019QZKK0301) and the Science and Technology Major Project of Tibetan Autonomous Region of China (XZ202201ZD0005G02).
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E.L. proposed the idea, S.G. and E.L. designed the research, S.G. and R.L. performed the analysis and S.G. drafted the paper. All authors contributed ideas, interpreted the results and were involved in the editing and writing of the paper.
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Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 The dominant climate driver in tree-ring sites that underwent earthquakes with a minimum intensity of 4 MMI.
The dominant climate driver is the climate variable (that is, T, mean temperature or P, total precipitation) with a specified time scale (1 to 18 months) that has the maximum correlation with the site-level ring-width index chronology. Only positive correlations are presented in this figure. Global mountain ranges were obtained from the Global Mountain Biodiversity Assessment (GMBA) Mountain Inventory v2 data set62,63.
Extended Data Fig. 2 Growth resilience shifts after seismic disturbances at a period of 3 to 30 years in western North America.
a) Distribution of tree-ring sites within different precipitation gradients. b) Mean disturbance legacies of sites within the same precipitation gradient for 5 to 15 years after different intensities of earthquakes. Error bars represent standard deviation. c) Number of tree-ring sites that underwent different intensities of earthquakes within different precipitation gradients. The dashed horizontal line indicates the position on the y axis of 5 sites. We presented the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies in certain environmental gradients with a minimum site number of 5. d) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for all sites in the region over time. e) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites with a 30-yr mean precipitation < 400 mm in the region over time. Lines within violin plots indicate the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles.
Extended Data Fig. 3 Growth resilience shifts after seismic disturbances at a period of 3 to 30 years in northwestern North America.
a) Distribution of tree-ring sites within different elevational gradients. b) Mean disturbance legacies of sites within the same elevational gradient for 5 to 15 years after different intensities of earthquakes. c) Number of tree-ring sites that underwent different intensities of earthquakes within different elevational gradients. The dashed horizontal line indicates the position of 5 sites on the y axis. We presented the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies in certain environmental gradients with a minimum site number of 5. d) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for all sites in the region over time. e) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies for tree-ring sites with elevation ≥ 1000 m in the region over time. Lines within violin plots indicate the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles.
Extended Data Fig. 4 Growth resilience shifts after seismic disturbances at a period of 3 to 30 years in the Mediterranean region.
a) Distribution of tree-ring sites within different environmental gradients. b) Mean disturbance legacies of sites within the same environmental gradient for 5 to 15 years after different intensities of earthquakes. c) Number of tree-ring sites that underwent different intensities of earthquakes within different environmental gradient. The dashed horizontal line indicates the position of 5 sites on the y axis. We presented the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies in certain environmental gradients with a minimum site number of 5. d) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for all sites in the region over time. e) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies for tree-ring sites with a 30-year mean precipitation < 600 mm in the region over time. f) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies for tree-ring sites with elevation < 600 m in the region over time. Lines within violin plots indicate the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles.
Extended Data Fig. 5 Growth resilience shifts after seismic disturbances at a period of 3 to 30 years in the Tibetan Plateau (TIB).
a) Distribution of tree-ring sites within different climatic gradients. b) Mean disturbance legacies of sites within the same climatic gradient for 5 to 15 years after different intensities of earthquakes. c) Number of tree-ring sites that underwent different intensities of earthquakes within each climatic gradient. The dashed horizontal line indicates the position of 5 sites on the y axis. We presented the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies in certain environmental gradients with a minimum site number of 5. d) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites with precipitation < 400 mm in westerly controlled TIB. e) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies for tree-ring sites with precipitation ≥ 1600 mm in westerly-controlled TIB over time. f) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies for tree-ring sites in monsoon-controlled TIB over time. Lines within violin plots indicate the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Growth resilience shifts after seismic disturbances at a period of 3 to 30 years in the Mongolian Plateau.
a) Distribution of tree-ring sites within different precipitation gradients. b) Mean disturbance legacies for sites within the same precipitation gradient for 5 to 15 years after different intensities of earthquakes. c) Number of tree-ring sites that underwent different intensities of earthquakes within different precipitation gradients. The dashed horizontal line indicates the position of 5 sites on the y axis. We presented the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies in certain environmental gradients with a minimum site number of 5. d) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites with a 30-year mean precipitation < 350 mm in the region over time. e) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites with a 30-year mean precipitation ≥ 350 mm in the region over time. Lines within violin plots indicate the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Growth resilience shifts after seismic disturbances at a period of 3 to 30 years in New Zealand (NZ).
a) Distribution of tree-ring sites within different precipitation gradients. b) Mean of disturbance legacies for sites within the same precipitation gradient for 3 to 15 years after different intensities of earthquakes. c) Number of tree-ring sites that underwent different intensities of earthquakes within different precipitation gradients. The dashed horizontal line indicates the position of 5 sites on the y axis. We presented the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies in certain environmental gradients with a minimum site number of 5. d) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites in the North Island of NZ over time. e) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites with a 30-year mean precipitation < 2000 mm in the South Island of NZ over time. f) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites with a 30-year mean precipitation ≥ 2000 mm in the South Island of NZ over time. Lines within violin plots indicate the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles.
Extended Data Fig. 8 Growth resilience shifts after seismic disturbances at a period of 3 to 30 years in southwestern South America.
a) Distribution of tree-ring sites within different environmental gradients. b) Mean disturbance legacies of sites within the same precipitation gradient for 5 to 15 years after different intensities of earthquakes. c) The number of tree-ring sites that underwent different intensities of earthquakes within different precipitation gradients. The dashed horizontal line indicates the position of 5 sites on the y axis. We presented the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies in certain environmental gradients with a minimum site number of 5. d) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies (represented by averaged standardized residuals) for tree-ring sites that have more growing than non-growing season precipitation (Pg > Pn) in the region over time. e) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies for tree-ring sites with more non-growing season precipitation (Pg < Pn) and a water table depth (WTD) < −150 m in the region over time. f) Comparison of the distribution of pre- and post-earthquake disturbance legacies for tree-ring sites with more non-growing season precipitation (Pg < Pn) and WTD ≥ -150 m in the region over time. Lines within violin plots indicate the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles.
Extended Data Fig. 9 Surface fractures after the Magnitude 7.8 earthquake on April 25, 2015 in Nepal.
a, b, Investigations on the mountain in the west side of the Nepal's Tatopani border point. Credit: photographs, Xiaoqing Chen.
Extended Data Fig. 10 Comparison of the summer precipitation-soil moisture relationship between the pre- and post-earthquake period.
Locations of earthquake events with a minimum magnitude of 5 during 2015–2019 is given in western North America (a), North Island of New Zealand (b), Turkey (c) and monsoon-controlled Tibetan plateau (d). (e) Comparison of the regression coefficients (Slope) of the summer precipitation-soil moisture relationship between the pre- and post-earthquake period. (f) Comparison of the correlation coefficients (r) of the summer precipitation-soil moisture relationship between the pre- and post-earthquake period. Summer refers to June to August in Northern Hemisphere and December to February in Southern Hemisphere. The size of the markers in (e) and (f) presents the average of annual soil moisture condition from 2013 to 2020.
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Gao, S., Liang, E., Liu, R. et al. Shifts of forest resilience after seismic disturbances in tectonically active regions. Nat. Geosci. 17, 189–196 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01380-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01380-x