Opioid maintenance, weaning and detoxification techniques; where we have been, where we are now and what the future holds: an update

Abstract

In 2017, the US Department of Health and Human Services declared a public health emergency on the opioid crisis. On average, 115 Americans die each day from an opioid overdose. The scope and breadth of this problem is continually evolving. In 2010, there was a shift in causes primarily due to the use of heroin, and currently the latest shift in opioid-related deaths involves a variety of synthetic opioids, particularly illicitly manufactured fentanyl. As the medical, sociological and political environments have drastically changed, especially in the USA, over the last 6 years with regard to opioid use and misuse, an updated review of the literature was necessary.