Improved solid-phase microextraction extraction procedure to detect trace-level epichlorohydrin in municipal water systems by HS-SPME-GC/MS

Abstract

Epichlorohydrin (ECH) is toxic to humans via multiple routes and is a potential carcinogen. The accurate measurement of ECH at trace level (<0.1 μg/L) is still an obstacle hindering the monitoring and regulation of municipal water systems. In this study, an improved headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) procedure is developed and optimized to extract and enrich ECH with high sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. A total 17.4-time enhancement in extraction efficiency is achieved compared with the default condition. Specifically, the AC/PDMS/DVB fiber offered a 4.4-time enhancement comparing with the PDMS/DVB fiber. The effects of different mineral salts in SPME were studied and it was found that an addition of 3 g Na₂SO₄ in the SPME head achieved an additional 3.3-time increase. The pattern how sodium sulfate enhanced ECH extraction by salting out is discussed. The optimization of extraction conditions (pH = 7, 35°C, and 20 min extraction duration) brought another 1.2 times further. Combined with gas chromatography with mass spectrometry, the optimized method exhibits curve linearity in the range of 0.02–1.00 μg/L with an R2 of 0.998. The limit of detection, precision, and accuracy of the method are 0.006 μg/L, 2.6%–5.3%, and −3.5% to −2.0%, respectively. The recovery of ECH spiking in tap water and surface water was investigated, with recovery rates of 88.0%–116% and 72.5%–108%, respectively. Adhering to the requirements of existing water quality regulations, our method shows a high potential to be applied in drinking water quality monitoring and water treatment process assessment.