Developmental Toxicity and Apoptosis in Zebrafish: The Impact of Lithium Hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) from Lithium-Ion Battery Electrolytes

Abstract

With the growing dependence on lithium-ion batteries, there is an urgent need to understand the potential developmental toxicity of LiPF6, a key component of these batteries. Although lithium’s toxicity is well-established, the biological toxicity of LiPF6 has been minimally explored. This study leverages the zebrafish model to investigate the developmental impact of LiPF6 exposure. We observed morphological abnormalities, reduced spontaneous movement, and decreased hatching and swim bladder inflation rates in zebrafish embryos, effects that intensified with higher LiPF6 concentrations. Whole-mount in situ hybridization demonstrated that the specific expression of the swim bladder outer mesothelium marker anxa5b was suppressed in the swim bladder region under LiPF6 exposure. Transcriptomic analysis disclosed an upregulation of apoptosis-related gene sets. Acridine orange staining further supported significant induction of apoptosis. These findings underscore the environmental and health risks of LiPF6 exposure and highlight the necessity for improved waste management strategies for lithium-ion batteries.