Retinoic Acid: Sexually Dimorphic, Anti-Insulin and Concentration-Dependent Effects on Energy

Abstract

This review addresses the fasting vs. re-feeding effects of retinoic acid (RA) biosynthesis and functions, and sexually dimorphic RA actions. It also discusses other understudied topics essential for understanding RA activities—especially interactions with energy-balance-regulating hormones, including insulin and glucagon, and sex hormones. This report will introduce RA homeostasis and hormesis to provide context. Essential context also will encompass RA effects on adiposity, muscle function and pancreatic islet development and maintenance. These comments provide background for explaining interactions among insulin, glucagon and cortisol with RA homeostasis and function. One aim would clarify the often apparent RA contradictions related to pancreagenesis vs. pancreas hormone functions. The discussion also will explore the adverse effects of RA on estrogen action, in contrast to the enhancing effects of estrogen on RA action, the adverse effects of androgens on RA receptors, and the RA induction of androgen biosynthesis.