The Flavoring Agent Ethyl Vanillin Induces Cellular Stress Responses in HK-2 Cells

Abstract

Flavored e-cigarettes are a popular alternative to cigarette smoking; unfortunately, the extrapulmonary effects are not well-characterized. Human proximal tubule cells were cultured for 24 or 48 h with 0–1000 µM ethyl vanillin (ETH VAN) and cytotoxicity evaluated. Mitochondrial health was significantly diminished following 48 h of exposure, accompanied by significantly decreased spare capacity, coupling efficiency, and ATP synthase expression. ETH VAN at 24 h inhibited glycolysis. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress marker C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) was increased at 100 μM relative to 500–1000 μM. The downstream proapoptotic marker cleaved caspase-3 subsequently showed a decreasing trend in expression after 48 h of exposure. The autophagy biomarkers microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3 (LC3B-I and LC3B-II) were measured by Western blot. LC3B-II levels and the LC3B-II/LC3B-I ratio increased at 24 h, which suggested activation of autophagy. In contrast, by 48 h, the autophagy biomarker LC3B-II decreased, resulting in no change in the LC3B-II/LC3B-I ratio. Mitophagy biomarker PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) expression decreased after 48 h of exposure. The downstream marker Parkin was not significantly changed after 24 or 48 h. These findings indicate that the flavoring ETH VAN can induce energy pathway dysfunction and cellular stress responses in a renal model.