Temporal Analysis of Pharmaceuticals as Emerging Contaminants in Surface Water and Wastewater Samples: A Case Study

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals in the environment are a global concern, with studies in all continents highlighting their widespread occurrence and potential ecological impacts, revealing their presence, fate, and associated risks in aquatic ecosystems. Despite typically occurring at low concentrations (ranging from ng/L to µg/L), advancements in analytical methods and more sensitive equipment have enabled the detection of a higher number of pharmaceuticals. In this study, surface and wastewater samples were extracted using solid phase extraction and analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Among the therapeutic classes investigated, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs/analgesics, antibiotics, and psychiatric drugs showed a higher number of detected pharmaceuticals. Concentrations ranged from below method detection limit (<MDL) to 3.20 µg/L (caffeine) and <MDL to 639 µg/L (hydroxyibuprofen) in 2018, and from <MDL to 0.848 µg/L (diclofenac) and <MDL to 53.0 µg/L (caffeine) in 2019 for river water and wastewater samples. Temporal analysis showed an increase in the sum of pharmaceutical concentrations over the study years, highlighting the importance of monitoring pharmaceuticals in the environment and their potential accumulation over time.