Respiratory and Intestinal Microbiota in Pediatric Lung Diseases—Current Evidence of the Gut–Lung Axis

Abstract

The intestinal microbiota is known to influence local immune homeostasis in the gut and to shape the developing immune system towards elimination of pathogens and tolerance towards self-antigens. Even though the lung was considered sterile for a long time, recent evidence using next-generation sequencing techniques confirmed that the lower airways possess their own local microbiota. Since then, there has been growing evidence that the local respiratory and intestinal microbiota play a role in acute and chronic pediatric lung diseases. The concept of the so-called gut–lung axis describing the mutual influence of local microbiota on distal immune mechanisms was established. The mechanisms by which the intestinal microbiota modulates the systemic immune response include the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and signaling through pattern recognition receptors (PRR) and segmented filamentous bacteria. Those factors influence the secretion of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines by immune cells and further modulate differentiation and recruitment of T cells to the lung. This article does not only aim at reviewing recent mechanistic evidence from animal studies regarding the gut–lung axis, but also summarizes current knowledge from observational studies and human trials investigating the role of the respiratory and intestinal microbiota and their modulation by pre-, pro-, and synbiotics in pediatric lung diseases.