Eliminating Manifold Pharmaceutical Pollutants with Carbon Nanoparticles Driven via a Short-Duration Ball-Milling Process

Abstract

One of the major problems facing humanity in all parts of the world is water pollution. Since carbon nanoparticles (CPs) are known for their excellent absorbability, this study explored preparing CPs via a facilitated ball-milling protocol. Four CP products were prepared with the friction enhancer being variated, typically 0-CPs, 2.5-CPs, 5-CPs, and 10-CPs. The four sorbents were characterized using TEM, EDX, XRD, BET, and FTIR methods. The 0-CPs, 2.5-CPs, 5-CPs, and 10-CPs possessed a BET surface area of 113, 139, 105, and 98.5 m2 g−1, respectively, and showed a sorption capacity of 55.6, 147.0, 65.8, and 24.6 mg g−1 when tested with chlorohexidine (CH). Therefore, the 2.5-CPs were selected as the best sorbents among the prepared nanomaterials and employed for further sorption investigations. The CH sorption on the 2.5-CPs followed the pseudo-second-order, and the liquid–film diffusion controlled the CH sorption onto the 2.5-CPs. The Langmuir isotherm model was followed, and the Dubinin–Radushkevich energy was 3.0 kJ mole−1, indicating a physisorption process. The thermodynamic outputs suggested that CH sorption by 2.5-CPs was favorable. Furthermore, the 2.5-CPs sorbent was tested for treating water samples contaminated with 20 mg L−1 of ciprofloxacin, dextromethorphan, guaifenesin, metronidazole, ibuprofen, chlorzoxazone, chlorpheniramine malate paracetamol, and hydro-chlorothiazide. The 2.5-CPs showed an average removal efficiency of 94.1% with a removal range of 92.1% to 98.3% and a 2.21 standard deviation value.