Abstract
This paper proposes a two-stage smart charging algorithm for future buildings equipped with an electric vehicle, battery energy storage, solar panels, and a heat pump. The first stage is a non-linear programming model that optimizes the charging of electric vehicles and battery energy storage based on a prediction of photovoltaïc (PV) power, building demand, electricity, and frequency regulation prices. Additionally, a Li-ion degradation model is used to assess the operational costs of the electric vehicle (EV) and battery. The second stage is a real-time control scheme that controls charging within the optimization time steps. Finally, both stages are incorporated in a moving horizon control framework, which is used to minimize and compensate for forecasting errors. It will be shown that the real-time control scheme has a significant influence on the obtained cost reduction. Furthermore, it will be shown that the degradation of an electric vehicle and battery energy storage system are non-negligible parts of the total cost of energy. However, despite relatively high operational costs, V2G can still be cost-effective when controlled optimally. The proposed solution decreases the total cost of energy with 98.6% compared to an uncontrolled case. Additionally, the financial benefits of vehicle-to-grid and operating as primary frequency regulation reserve are assessed.
Funder
Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland
Subject
Energy (miscellaneous),Energy Engineering and Power Technology,Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment,Electrical and Electronic Engineering,Control and Optimization,Engineering (miscellaneous)
Cited by
23 articles.
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