Bone Health in Children with Rheumatic Disorders: Focus on Molecular Mechanisms, Diagnosis, and Management

Abstract

Bone is an extremely dynamic and adaptive tissue, whose metabolism and homeostasis is influenced by many different hormonal, mechanical, nutritional, immunological and pharmacological stimuli. Genetic factors significantly affect bone health, through their influence on bone cells function, cartilage quality, calcium and vitamin D homeostasis, sex hormone metabolism and pubertal timing. In addition, optimal nutrition and physical activity contribute to bone mass acquisition in the growing age. All these factors influence the attainment of peak bone mass, a critical determinant of bone health and fracture risk in adulthood. Secondary osteoporosis is an important issue of clinical care in children with acute and chronic diseases. Systemic autoimmune disorders, like juvenile idiopathic arthritis, can affect the skeletal system, causing reduced bone mineral density and high risk of fragility fractures during childhood. In these patients, multiple factors contribute to reduce bone strength, including systemic inflammation with elevated cytokines, reduced physical activity, malabsorption and nutritional deficiency, inadequate daily calcium and vitamin D intake, use of glucocorticoids, poor growth and pubertal delay. In juvenile arthritis, osteoporosis is more prominent at the femoral neck and radius compared to the lumbar spine. Nevertheless, vertebral fractures are an important, often asymptomatic manifestation, especially in glucocorticoid-treated patients. A standardized diagnostic approach to the musculoskeletal system, including prophylaxis, therapy and follow up, is therefore mandatory in at risk children. Here we discuss the molecular mechanisms involved in skeletal homeostasis and the influence of inflammation and chronic disease on bone metabolism.